What is Sociocultural Theory?

Sociocultural learning begins with social interaction

Imagine you’ve just started a new job, but you’re unsure about the lunch break culture. As it gets closer to noon, you feel like you’re the new kid at school, desperately waiting for someone—anyone—to flag you down to join them. Eventually, you realize you’ve only got one choice: Go talk to someone!

Lev Vygotsky, developer of sociocultural theory, would be proud. He believed that all learning stems from social interaction. His research revealed that the people we’re surrounded by, the cultural context we grow up in, and the tools at our disposal all contribute to what we learn and how we learn.

Instructional designers know this to be true. Collaborative environments foster integral peer-to-peer learning experiences. New hires depend on mentorship and guided support to quickly assimilate to workplace culture. What we can learn on our own is inherently less than what we can learn with the help of others. These aren’t exactly revelations. They’re well-known instructional strategies, and they all share a common starting point.

In this post, we’ll explore sociocultural theory, its core principles and key concepts, and its role in education and the workplace.

Origins of sociocultural theory

In the early 20th century, Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky proposed that all learning and development begins with social interaction. He argued that learners first acquire the basics of language and speech from others, then use them aloud as self-guidance, and finally internalize them as inner thought. Put simply, learners need to interact with others more knowledgeable than themselves to advance their skills and knowledge.

Just prior to his untimely death at age 37, Vygotsky’s studies were banned by Stalin’s Soviet party, but preserved by close friends and colleagues. Decades later, Harvard University Press published a comprehensive English-language collection of Vygotsky’s work. This revival introduced learner-centric, collaborative, and interactive teaching strategies to the Western world. The move away from a one-size-fits-all approach—in both the classroom and eventually the workplace—had begun.

Core principles of sociocultural theory

Social interaction in learning

In the sociocultural model, social interaction is critical to our ability to internalize and apply knowledge. Without others to teach and guide us, new skills are much harder to come by. In the workplace, that might look like an onboarding program designed to help new hires adapt to company culture and get to know their new team. Organizations assign new employees skilled mentors or buddies to teach them on-the-job skills. Sociocultural organizations give learners frequent opportunities to discuss best practices with peers, hear feedback from supervisors and mentors, and practice scenario-based training based on real-world interactions.

The role of culture

The sociocultural model says that culture plays an important role in how individuals learn, think, and develop. Culture provides tools like language, counting systems, writing, art, and technology that people use to interpret and interact with the world around them. Vygotsky’s theory suggests that these very tools heavily influence how and what we learn.

Organizations strive to establish a positive workplace culture through company values, mission statements, and social initiatives. These signal to employees and the public that they’re more than just a business seeking profit. Embedding company values into workplace training ensures they’re not just lip service, but real, practiced, and integral to the brand.

Language and thought

Language determines not only how we communicate but also how we think. Vygotsky suggested that language and thought are completely separate systems that eventually merge. A child first uses external communication—or speech—to interact with others, then speaks aloud to themselves to guide their own behavior, and over time, that voice becomes their inner thoughts.

Similarly, workplace learning occurs through interactions. Vygotsky’s theory says we learn by observing and doing. Organizations formally scaffold new hire growth and development with mentorship programs and peer-to-peer learning experiences, but there’s an informal aspect to this as well. From the moment new hires walk in the door or enter the Slack channel, each interaction they have is an important learning experience. They observe accepted behavioral norms among peers and between superiors and subordinates, and do their best to match them.

Key concepts within the theory

Zone of proximal development

The zone of proximal development (ZPD) is the gap between what someone can learn on their own and what they can learn with external guidance. Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory proposes that learning is most effective within the ZPD. A more experienced person, like a peer or teacher, helps bridge the gap to advance a learner’s current knowledge to its full potential.

Apprenticeships and vocational training in technical and trades settings are a perfect example of this concept in action. Employees learn on the job with a more experienced person to guide them. In traditional corporate roles, mentorship serves a similar function. Successful organizations know that employees can only make it so far on their own. Reaching their highest skill level requires expert guidance.

Scaffolding

Just like builders use scaffolding to construct a building section by section, educators and trainers use scaffolding in the classroom and workplace to guide learners toward mastery bit by bit. As the learner becomes more and more competent, the instructor gradually removes supports.

Consider technical skills training. An employee brand new to warehouse work wouldn’t jump straight to solo forklift operation. They would take workplace safety training, observe their more knowledgeable mentors, and practice in a safe, virtual environment before jumping into the driver’s seat. Even then, their mentor would observe them until they no longer needed support.

More knowledgeable other (MKO)

Teaching and learning in the zone of proximal development (ZPD) works best if a learner has a more knowledgeable other (MKO) to guide them. Think about who taught you how to drive a car. It was most likely a parent, older sibling, or instructor who was already skilled at driving.

In the workplace, new hires depend on MKOs to guide their company culture assimilation and navigate the tools of the job. Subject matter experts (SMEs) provide valuable product knowledge and insights to help instructional designers build learning resources for their sales teams. Organizations encourage employees to join communities of practice where they can find support, inspiration, and connection from their more knowledgeable peers.

Sociocultural theory in education

The collaborative classroom

Sociocultural theory supports a collaborative, interactive, and student-centered approach to learning. While the teacher or instructor acts as the most knowledgeable other, students also serve as MKOs to their peers during socially interactive strategies like:

• Group presentations
• Think-pair-share exercises
• Guided group discussions
• Assignments with peer feedback cycles

Students enjoy a stronger bond with their peers, and teachers don’t need to take on teaching everything. The sociocultural classroom also emphasizes students’ backgrounds, cultures, and languages. Teachers vary their instruction to match the diversity of their students.

The online and blended classroom

Nearly a hundred years past his death, Vygotsky’s theories continue to prove their worth. As modern technology changes the classroom environment and students complete more work online, educators find new ways to encourage social interaction.

• Learning management systems play host to online discussion forums
• Students compete against each other in digital games
• Teachers post videos of themselves walking through their thought process to help students develop their own
• Students collaborate online in real-time to complete group projects

The move to digital learning hasn’t diluted sociocultural theory—whether learners are fully online or use a blended learning approach. Quite the opposite. It’s strengthened the argument that learning is best facilitated through social engagement.

Comparing sociocultural theory with other learning theories

Sociocultural vs. Behaviorism

Both behaviorism and sociocultural theory cite the learner’s environment as a strong indicator of learning, but they differ in explaining how. Sociocultural learning suggests that learning occurs through learner-centered, social interactions. Behaviorism focuses on teacher-directed rewards and punishments. Additionally, behaviorism all but ignores the development of an internal thought process and instead focuses on observable behaviors and reinforcement.

Sociocultural vs. Constructivism

Constructivist learning theory acknowledges the role of peers and teachers in social learning, but focuses more on individual knowledge construction. A constructivist classroom emphasizes individual brainstorming, experimentation, and reflection, whereas sociocultural theory stresses learning as a social, guided process involving more knowledgeable peers and adults.

Sociocultural vs. Cognitive Learning Theories

Cognitive learning theories measure what a learner can do independently of others. They focus on mental processes like memory and problem-solving. However, cognitive learning theories consider cultural context and social interaction secondary. A cognitive learning classroom doesn’t measure learning in a collaborative, sociocultural environment, but rather through individual assessments.

Social interaction: the key to learning and development

Vygotsky’s model of social learning prompted a move away from a one-size-fits-all approach to learning in the Western world. Educators and corporate trainers use social interaction, culture, and language to unlock learner potential. Rather than seeking what a learner can do on their own, organizations use sociocultural theory to provide them with guided support through mentorship programs, scaffolding, and powerful cultural tools.

Thinking about adding socially interactive strategies to your toolbox? Check out this blog post about the three most common types of learning delivery—synchronous, asynchronous, and blended learning—to see which one works best for your learners!